Ethics Game Reflective Journal Essay

Nursing has evolved throughout the years. Gone are the days that the existence of nursing geared towards following the orders of senior members on the profession and initiation of routine procedures. In today’s nursing, nurses are valued and needed for their reasoning as well as intellectual skills. The changes in nursing require the desire to be more responsible and contributory to the wellbeing of those that needed care. These changes led to more complex ethical dilemmas that nurses’ encounter. This paper aims to provide a reflection on the Ethical Dilemmas presented on the Ethics Game Simulation, the decision-making steps taken to address the ethical issues, how the ethical concepts influenced the decisions made, and the application of the ethical concepts to a medical-surgical unit. The Case of the Troubled Teen This case illustrates Rachel Banks a 16 year-old teenager who got pregnant out of wedlock and currently on her tenth hour of labor on the OB/GYN unit at Seva Medical Center. She’s accompanied by her parents. Rachel’s parents are instructing the staff nurses to withhold the pain medication as punishment for getting pregnant before getting married. Since Rachel Banks is a minor, legally, the parents can decide for her. The nurses are concerned due to the possible detrimental health effects that the situation can cause to Rachel and her unborn baby, Lily. The nurses also became aware that the parents may not be fully educated on the consequences of their decision. In order to make an ethical decision on this case, I used the Baird Decision Model which provided five frameworks: Step 1: Be attentive, Step 2: Be Intelligent, Step 3: Be Reasonable, Step 4: Be Responsible, and Step 5: Be Reflective (University of Phoenix, 2013). The main issue in this case is how to ensure that Rachel and the baby get appropriate and timely medical care. I reviewed the e-mails and communications gathered in order to get a picture of the situation and see that the best possible solution arise. Upon understanding the main issue of this case, I’ve identified that the primary stakeholders includes; Rachel Banks, her parents, her unborn child, the staff nurse, and the primary nurse because they will be impacted on the decisions made in this situation. After identifying the main issue and the primary stakeholders, using the rights/responsibilities lens I was able to identify that my obligations and duties includes providing the best possible care to Rachel Banks and her unborn child, not to accommodate parents who are harming their child, and also support my staff’s professional improvement. On the results lens, I was able to recognize what would create the greatest good for the greatest number of stakeholders which was to involve the nurses and the parents in assessing need for medication intervention and also provide information for aftercare support and education. I believe that the decision made on this scenario benefits both the patient and her family. By involving the parents in the assessment of Rachel’s medical needs, conflict is alleviated and thus, creates a positive outcome. The Case of the Policies and Politics This case is about Alain Trottier, a patient brought in the emergency room by his domestic partner, Yves. Alain was admitted to the ICU unit and has been unconscious. The day- shift supervisor, Carlotta Baldwin is preventing Yves from seeing the patient and refuses provide information regarding the patient because he is not an actual family member. However, according to the hospital policy, domestic partners are to be treated as married couples for the purposes of access and, most importantly, when it must be determined who can make medical decisions for a patient unable to give their own consent. My duty as the nurse taking care of Alain is to identify the critical issue in this situation which is the equal treatment and access of gay partners at Seva Medical Center as equal to those of straight couples. Upon identifying this as the main issue, it is easier to analyze the problem. Again, the following stakeholders were identified: Alain Trottier (patient), Yves (domestic partner), C arlotta Baldwin, RN (shift supervisor), Amelia Flinch (Director of Nursing), the shareholders of the hospital, and lastly, I the staff nurse taking care of Alain. This scenario has led to the identification of relationship lens. The relationship lens focuses on the community. The main concern of this lens is to provide basic liberties to all people (University of Phoenix, 2013). The three rights represented in this case were: right to participate in decision-making for an unconscious family member, right to have hospital policy regarding participation by family members implemented, and right to be informed that your interpretation of hospital policy is inaccurate. I believe that these rights are the major component of this lens because it focuses on the patient, family, and healthcare providers. Upon understanding the basic rights related to this situation, the following actions such as educating all employees with hospital policies, establishing a taskforce to make sure that the policies are put into practice and conducting yearly audits to make sure that the policies are implemented. These actions will ensure that the patient will benefit greatly on the policies placed on the facility. Lastly, the reputation lens discusses the virtues important for leadership; core competencies such as managing diversity, problem-solving, self-knowledge, decision quality and fairness. These values are important because of the overall positive effect that it can bring to the patient and the facility. My final decision in this case is to note on Alain’s chart that Yves is to be given access and treated as family. Speak to Carlotta about my decision and let my supervisor know. I believe that this decision has no risk. This decision has demonstrated that I am fully knowledgeable on the hospital policies and also implementing what I know for the benefit of my patient. By assuring equal access will likely improve the hospital’s status in the community. Lastly, by informing Carlotta Baldwin and the supervisor know of the decision can be a message that further education is needed for all employees to be more aware and knowledgeable of the hospital policies. Ethical Dilemma at a Medical-Surgical Unit I’ve been working as a RN at a medical-surgical unit for almost a year now. I still consider myself as a novice nurse and I feel that I haven’t been exposed to a lot of ethical dilemmas. However, I believe that pain management or providing pain relief can be an ethical dilemma for any nurse. The ethical issue is this: can we as nurses undertreat a patient’s pain because we are concerned about the repercussions or because we know that the patient is addicted to the medication. I believe when challenging situations like this arise, I need to be conscious of my own biases and make evidence-based decisions that can provide optimal treatment to the patient. By not being judgmental, I can fully assess what would benefit my patient greatly and include him/her on the treatment plan- giving autonomy. By including the patient I can also decrease the harm because I will have a better understanding of what will work best for my patient, and lastly, by hindering my biases I will be able to treat my patient’s pain in a non-discriminating way possible. As nurses continues to encounter complex ethical dilemmas as the profession and society gears forward, we must still go back on the foundation of nursing in accordance to the mission of Florence Nightingale; nurses are missioners of health dedicated to the advancement of human welfare. References: University of Phoenix. (2013). Ethics Game Simulation [Multimedia]. Retrieved from University of Phoenix, HCS478 website.

Consequentialist Versus Deontological Ethical Systems

What is â€Å"good†? How does a person decide what is good? Over the course of history, various thinkers have tried to develop systems which guide human thought on this question. Some of the most important ethical theories are the â€Å"normative† theories — that is ethical theories which try to establish authoritative standards by which conduct can be judged. Under the general heading of â€Å"normative,† two of the most important schools of ethical thought are the â€Å"consequentialist† and the â€Å"deontological schools of ethical thought. (â€Å"Normative Ethics† n. d. )Consequentialism is the school of thought which asserts that the morality of a given action is to be judged by the consequence of that action. If the consequences are good, the action is good. Consequentialism is generally divided into a number of theories, including: utilitarianism and ethical egoism. Utilitarianism holds that the right action is one that produces the greatest good/pleasure (and least pain) for the greatest number of people. Utilitarianism has its root in the seminal figures of Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, and Henry Sidgwick.Classic utilitarians developed a system which is could best be described as â€Å"hedonistic act consequentialism. † Their system was â€Å"consequentialist† in that its proponents claimed that an act is morally right if the act causes the greatest good. To calculate this, one had to compare the total amount of good that the act caused, minus the total amount of bad that the act caused. If the net total net amount of good was greater than this net amount of good for any other act that the agent might have performed, then the act was good.Their system was â€Å"hedonistic,† in that they claimed that pleasure was the only true â€Å"good† and pain is the only true â€Å"bad. † This system was summed up in the common statement, â€Å"the greatest happiness for the greates t number. † (Kemerling, 2002; Hollinger, 2002, p. 31-34: â€Å"Normative Ethics,† n. d. ; Lee, 2000, â€Å"Utilitarianism†; Sinnott-Armstrong, 2006) As Mill articulated this system, utilitarianism was consequentialist rather than deontological because included certain key points of denial. Utilitarianism denied that the moral rightness of any act depended on anything other than the consequences of the act.This left the utilitarian system open to attack because of the hedonism it advanced. (Hollinger, 2002, p. 34-36; â€Å"Normative Ethics,† n. d. ; Kemerling, 2002; Lee, 2000, â€Å"Utilitarianism†; Sinnott-Armstrong, 2006) From the beginning, critics of hedonism attacked utilitarianism. They criticized John Stuart Mill as trying to degrade the value of human life to an animalistic level. One of the more commonly used arguments was that vulgar acts, such as orgiastic sex might produce greater transient pleasure than some disciplined higher act such a s studying fine poetry. (Hollinger, 2002, pp.34-36: â€Å"Normative Ethics,† n. d. ; Kemerling, 2002; Sinnott-Armstrong, 2006)Mill tried to respond to these charges by setting up a distinction between lower and higher qualities of pleasure. (Mill, 1861, 56) This did not satisfy Mill’s critics, who contended that in the end, utilitarianism supported hedonism. Critics find these systems overly technical and confusing, and utilitarianism fosters an â€Å"end justifies the means† line of reasoning. Further utilitarianism does not accept the notion that some acts are absolutely ethically wrong, so that potentially it can be warped into a system justifying any means.Hollinger, 2002, pp. 34-36; â€Å"Normative Ethics,† n. d. ; Kemerling, 2002; Lee, 2000, â€Å"Utilitarianism†) Egoism is the view that a moral person is a self-interested person. The primary exponents of ethical egoism, include Epicurus, Adam Smith, and Ayn Rand. Critics charges that the eth ical system of Epicurus leads to an austere hedonism. Adam Smith’s â€Å"invisible hand† would cause the most productive state of an economy to be reached by allowing all of the people in the economic unit each to pursue his own self-interest.Ayn Rand professed a view of rational self-interest, saying that altruism was irrational. (Hollinger, 2002, pp. 28-31; â€Å"Normative Ethics,† 2002; Sinnott-Armstrong, 2006) Deontological ethical theory takes its name from the Greek root â€Å"deon,† meaning â€Å"that which is obligatory. † It is ethical theory based on a concept of duty or obligation. Turning then to principled ethical systems, stem from Socrates, who felt himself duty bound to accept the ruling of the court in Athens, which had ordered him put to death.From Socrates, one can move ahead to Immanuel Kant, whose philosophical system led to his system of the â€Å"categorical imperative†: â€Å"Act so that you treat humanity, whether i n your own person or in that of another, always as an end, and never as a means only. † To develop his â€Å"Categorical Imperative,† Kant looked to the roots of morality in humanity's rational capacity and meticulously developed a system based on moral absolutes. He argued that these are inviolable duties, rules which must be followed absolutely and in every possible situation. (â€Å"Normative Ethics,† n. d. ; Hollinger, 2002, pp.37-39)Another school of deontological thought is the contractarianistic school exemplified by John Rawls or Thomas Hobbes. This theory asserts that moral acts are those act that all people would agree to if they were completely unbiased. (â€Å"Normative Ethics. † n. d. ) Finally, there are philosophers such as John Locke, also considered deontological, who presented the idea that all men are endowed with certain inalienable rights. (â€Å"Normative Ethics. † n. d. ) Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) set forth what is generally a ccepted as the most advanced theory of deontological or duty-based ethics.Contrary to the consequentialism of Mill, Kant’s theory judges morality by examining the nature of actions and the will of agents rather than the goals sought or the ends achieved. To describe this in general terms, this deontological theory focuses on the inputs leading to actions rather than outcomes produced by those inputs. This does not mean that Kant did not care what the outcomes of his actions were. Like other men, he wished that things would go well. But Kant insisted that as far as the moral evaluation of our actions was concerned, consequences did not matter.  (Hollinger, 2002, pp. 37-39; â€Å"Normative Ethics,† n. d. ; Kemerling, 2002)In his philosophical studies, Kant tried to establish a rational principle that would stand as a categorical imperative for ethical judgments. He insisted that the imperative, or duty, had to be categorical, not merely hypothetical, or conditional, be cause true morality could not depend on such things as individual likes and dislikes, abilities, or opportunities. These were mere the â€Å"accidents† of history, and an ultimate principle of ethics had to go far beyond such incidentals.Eventually, Kant developed his categorical imperative, which he articulated in several different versions, including: Always act in such a way that you can also will that the maxim of your action should become a universal law. and Act so that you treat humanity, both in your own person and in that of another, always as an end and never merely as a means. The first version of the categorical imperative emphasizes an idea important to Kant’s thinking of the idea that any rule was valid only if it could be applied universally. The second statement of the rule stresses the importance of respecting persons as more important than things.(Kay, 1997)Deontological ethical theories are strongest in the areas where utilitarian theories face the g reatest difficulty. Ethical rules based on duty have the great advantage that the ends can never justify the means. For example, suppose a ruler wished to revive the Roman practice of public crucifixion of criminals. Even if it was determined that the general populace was so caught up in a blood lust that the pleasure of the masses who would watch the agonies of the condemned far, far out-weighed the suffering of the victim, the categorical imperative demands that individual human rights be acknowledged and held inviolable.No matter how much the public wants this spectacle, it must be dismissed from our moral deliberations. (Hollinger, 2002, pp. 38-39: Kay, 1997) Putting Kant’s categorical imperative into practice, however, has presented a number of serious problems. First, the categorical imperative gives only absolute results. Actions are â€Å"good† or â€Å"bad. † There is no room for â€Å"gray areas. † For example, lying is always wrong — eve n the â€Å"polite lie† or the lie told for noble reasons. Second, duties often come into conflict, and the categorical imperative gives no means to resolve these conflicts.Utilitarianism permits a ready comparison of all actions, and if a set of alternatives have the same expected utility, they are equally good. Conflicting duties, however, may require that I perform logically or physically incompatible actions, and my failure to do any one is itself a moral wrong. (Hollinger, 2002, p. 39: Kay, 2002) Because neither theory is satisfactory in its pure form, I am compelled to use a blend in real life. I follow a utilitarian approach in the sense of trying to maximize the good that I bring to people, but with an awareness that there are categorical situations beyond which I will not go.

Art Tatum

Ohio, he was destined for revolutionize Jazz. He was born with a blind eye and the other partially blind, but his ears were his way of seeing the world. He could sit down and play the same music meant for four hands. He was unbeatable at any piano competition. His influence on jazz will be forever respected by Jazz pianists (and non-pianists) worldwide. As a child, Art received a little formal training for piano at Toledo School of Music, but he mainly just taught himself.By the age of 18, he was already playing for radio redcoats and even had his own show at one point. By age 24, he wrote and released Tiger Rag, a song fully equipped with fast beats, Incredibly technical rhythms, and the need for skill. As he continued in his musical career, his articulation, style, and individuality only got better. Art changed the entire face of jazz music. He helped lead the next generation into the bebop era. He was the musician that started to change the chord progressions, fingered with the harmonics, and tried new Inversions of different chords (to get a more Jazzy sound).Datum was able to use his classical background and his Jazzy style to create his own type of music. It was technical and complex, but still full of the freestyle that jazz so easily expresses. He used his left-handedness to create extreme bass parts and his right hand to create beautiful runs up and down the entire piano. Art had incredible ears. Although he was nearly blind in one eye and completely blind In the other, he could see perfectly when it came to music. It was said that Datum could find the dominant note in a flushing toilet. He had Incredible pitch, so e knew exactly which notes would sound perfect with the others.In regard to his piano, they called him, God because he was so good. Datum never stopped playing piano. It was his life. As one man said, Datum played so brilliantly and so much. .. That I thought the piano was goanna break. My mother left the room So I said Whats wrong, Mama? And she said Oh, that man plays too much piano. Even extremely critical people would compliment him for his piano skills. Whenever he ever entered a competition for Plano, he never lost. Arts style of music was not the impel, easy music that anybody could play.HIS technique was mastered. He had the most intricate ornamentation in every line of a song he played. Not only that, but he didnt even seem like he was trying. As he pounded away at the keys, it didnt seem like pounding but more floating. It seemed so effortless to him. Hank Jones said, When I finally met him and got a chance to hear him play in person, It seemed as if he wasnt really exerting much effort, he had an effortless way of playing. It was deceptive. Youd watch him and you couldnt believe what was coming out, what was reaching your ears.

The corporation Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The corporation - Case Study Example ation is its failure to take responsibility for problems it causes, while leaving others to bear the burden of their harmful effect (The Corporation). Economically, corporations are powerful and externalizing machines, while, anthropologically, this is a boundary issue between the state, the market, and the firm. The film offers various ways in which corporations cause harm, including to workers, human health, animals, and the biosphere. It also identifies penalties applied for legislation breaches as simply business costs for the corporation (The Corporation). The Corporation is exhaustively researched and covers weighty issues. However, the film also takes a hostile and skeptical viewpoint of corporations, which can be seen in the largely one-sided interviews and investigations regarding the origin and operations of corporations. In fact, the title of the book the film is adapted from, The Corporation: the Pathological Pursuit of Profit and Power (The Corporation), reveals the theme and agenda of the film. With regards to whether the film is too biased against corporations, it can be said that it covers one aspect of corporations exhaustively. It is true that corporations defraud and steal from their stockholders, pollute the environment, callously take advantage of cheap labor abroad, fire workers at will, corrupt political establishments, and devote their operations purely to the pursuit of profit (The Corporation). However, corporations have also improved the standard of living for Americans, generated scientific and medical advances, and employed millions of Americans. These aspects are absent in the film’s narrative. Therefore, this film can be said to be partisan as it has a perspective that it wants the audience to accept, selectively choosing the type and nature of information that it presents. As can be seen from the chart below, corporations have created the most jobs in the United States in the past. The last thirty years have witnessed an

Strategic Plan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Strategic Plan - Assignment Example objectives of the institution, strategies to address each of the objectives, at least one inmate program that will aid in achieving each objective and a method for assessing success for each objective. If this research paper was read by the public, the definite impact would be that many people would be informed about this correctional institution. criminals would fear going there and the public would know that the United states government cares for their welfare and security. The proposed strategies would probably be adopted or modified by the management at ADX Florence. The research has been done using internet sources whose references are listed at the end of this research paper. The name of this maximum facility correctional institution is ADX. it is also known by the names ADX Florence, Florence ADMAX, Supermax or the Alcatraz of the Rockies. as mentioned above, this penitentiary is governed by the Federal Bureau of Prisons of the United States. The facility was opened in 1994 and it is located at Fremont County Colorado. its security class is ranked as Supermax hence the name. actually ADX Florence is the most secure prison in the United States earning itself a record in the Guinness world book of records. the facility houses prisoners that have been rendered too dangerous or high-profile for normal prisoners. 95% of prisoners sent here have a history of violent behavior in other normal prisons. here are images of the exterior view of the prison. A published mission statement could not be found but the reason why the penitentiary was founded was to be a home to United States most violent and evil criminals most of whom had committed various murders and had no value for life. the long term goal

Childhood Obesity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Childhood Obesity - Essay Example However, the physical cost of being obese are much greater even than this. It is well-known that obesity can dramatically lower life expectancy at every age level. Approaching epidemic proportions, identifying the causes and treatment of obesity is of utmost importance particularly when working with children who have an entire lifetime ahead of them. An obese person is someone who has more body fat than science considers healthy for their particular height, body type, gender and age. As a general rule, people who are 40 to 100 pounds over this determined ideal weight range are considered obese. People who are more than 100 pounds over this weight range are called morbidly obese. Heredity significantly influences obesity. People who are genetically predisposed to being obese have a harder time trying to lose weight or to maintain a desired body mass. Children born into overweight families are often overweight even before they have the opportunity to try maintaining a healthy weight. Other contributing factors to the problem of obesity in children can include metabolic and socioeconomic circumstances, diseases, endocrine ailments and medications Metabolism refers to how efficiently a person’s body burns up energy. Metabolic levels and hormonal balances differ widely from one person to another and both factor significantly i n controlling weight. (â€Å"Overview of Obesity†, 2007). Overeating, eating fatty foods and spending long periods of time in inactivity also contribute significantly to obesity. Studies have also shown that there is a connection between substandard economic circumstances and the rates of obesity in children. The food available to lower income populations usually has a higher level of empty calories, meaning it is poor in nutritional value but high in fat and corn syrup. Children growing up in low income homes don’t always have the option to eat well and

Principles of Economics 3. part 6 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Principles of Economics 3. part 6 - Essay Example Prices of goods and services do not change proportionately over time. This means that some prices rise more than others and consumers substitute products and services that have become relatively less expensive. CPI overstates the cost of living by excluding the possibility for product substitution. When the quality of a good deteriorates, the value of the dollar falls, and vice versa. Because changes in the quality are hard to measure, the basket calculates prices on the assumption that quality is constant, which distorts the CPI measures. Although the CPI is not perfect, together with other indexes like GDP deflator or PPI, it gives a relatively useful indication about the cost of living for consumers. CPI and other price indexes are used to compare dollar values over time, by taking into account the effects on inflation. Reference: Mankiw, G. (2004) "Chapter 24. Measuring the Cost of Living" Principles of Economics pp.

Topic Responses Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Topic Responses - Essay Example Stem cell research entails investigations on basic cells that have the ability to create other cells. Stem cell research has always been a controversial issue, but from my perspective, I believe it will have a lot of advantages (Cohen, 2012). Stem cell research will provide a breakthrough in medicine through coming up with means of treating some of the incurable diseases present todays (Cohen, 2012). With proper advancement of this field and proper channeling of the knowledge in stem cell, management of some incurable diseases might become possible in the future when they can manage to make the stem cells regenerate newer cells (Cohen, 2012). Bacteria are unicellular living microorganisms whereas viruses are nonliving. Viruses often live in a host in order to multiply whereas bacteria can even grow on any non-living surface (Cohen, 2012). Furthermore, viruses often invade a given host’s cells and then turn the given cell’s genetic material to make their own products (Cohen, 2012). Bacteria on the other hand carry their machineries needed for growth and multiplication with them. Viruses only carry information inform of DNA or RNA packaged in a proteins coat (Cohen, 2012). The commonest method used in identification of most bacterial species is the gram staining method (Cohen, 2012). This method is often used in identifying gram positive and gram negative bacteria on their basis of their cell wall properties. The first stain applied is the crystal violet, which then the bacteria is treated with a given mordant (Cohen, 2012). Later, the bacteria is washed by a decolorizing agent like alcohol then stained with safranin (red dye). Gram positives will be stained violet while gram negatives pink (Cohen, 2012). Acid fast staining is often used for bacteria that are not gram staining. It is mostly used for acid fast bacteria like

Strategy planning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Strategy planning - Essay Example However, the younger generation between the age of 18 and 28 seem to be comfortable with the brands from crystal fashion. The idea is to ensure that brand that resonates with them such as scarfs, sweaters and dresses. Crystal fashion in pursuit for a credible customer base needs to be more radical than the other competitors in the market (Wittmann & Reuter, 2008). The young professionals from either gender who have so far embraced the brands from the fashions talk of the products as being unique and classic effectively revealing who they are are in the society (Kurtz, 2012). The company should be more interested in the secrets of the young people as a strategy for producing future brands. Crystal Fashion is an organization that deals with production of garments and clothes for both men and women. In the recent past the company has sought to venture into new markets and to expand its market portfolio as appropriate. Most of the brands from the company have found favor with most of the consumers in Saudi Arabia region and the strategy is to position the clothing and garment brands in the market to attract more loyal customers. Crystal fashion is an organization closely held, for profit and is medium sized compared to other entities in the market (May, 2010). The company has a substantial customer base with earn a profit of one million turnovers. The idea is to have the young people share their stories concerning their preferred brands and fashion to enable the company factor such issues in the production of future brands. The strategy is to obtain the secrets from the target group as a basis for coming up better and improved brands that are accepted by a majority (Dillon, 2012). The company needs to come up with diverse channels that enable the target group share their secrets, learn from other people then use the input from the individuals to improve on the brands. The

Existentialism and Rebt Essay Example for Free

Existentialism and Rebt Essay During a lifetime, most individuals question the meaning of their existence at one point or another. Existential therapy aims to help individuals find purpose, have better defined goals, and live life to the fullest. Existential therapy takes into account cultural, social and political values of the client. It attempts to help the client live more deliberately, while accepting life’s unpredictable challenges and contradictions. Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) is complementary to existential therapy by providing techniques to help clients make changes once their awareness is increased through existential discovery. Existential therapy and REBT integrated approach to counseling can provide successful results by combining individual meaning with reasonable thinking. This empowers clients to take control of their lives. The first step in the therapy process is to help the client become aware of what changes need to be made in order to live a more fulfilling and satisfying life. This is achieved by examining one or more existential themes. In his book Existential Psychotherapy, Irwin Yalom describes four major themes that permeate existential psychotherapy: death, freedom, isolation, and meaninglessness. In the first theme, death, here are two major ideas that play key factors in therapy (Yalom, 1980). First of all, death and life coexist. Even though physically they are clearly separated, psychologically they exist simultaneously. Death is a natural part of the cycle of life, and as one dies, another is given an opportunity to experience life (Kaufmann, 1975). Death is a realistic threat and a part of our daily lives. Every day we are alive, we are closer to death. Frankl (2006) believes that â€Å"if there is a meaning in life at all, then there must be a meaning in suffering. Suffering is an ineradicable part of life, even as fate and death. Without suffering and death human life cannot be complete† (p. 67). Nothing in this world lasts forever. It is only natural for humans to see death as a part of life that is unavoidable. The awareness of death has a significant impact on life and â€Å"Although the physicality of death destroys man, the idea of death saves him† (Yalom, 1980, p. 30). Awareness of death allows individuals to live life more fully, authentically, and appreciate how truly precious life is. Authenticity is one of the main concepts of existentialism and is defined as being genuine, true to one’s feelings and beliefs, aware of self and surroundings, and ability to successfully deal with issues related to existence (Sharf, 2008). People come to appreciate life more, exist mindfully and purposefully. Nietzsche wrote: â€Å"He that consummates his life dies his death victoriously† (Kaufmann, 1975, p. 129). Those who live a complete and happy life are less likely to be afraid of death because they have experienced life to the fullest. A potential threat of life be taken away makes it more likely for people to appreciate and enjoy life. Without suffering how does one know pleasure? For example, someone with cancer who previously has taken life for granted may have a greater appreciation for life after beating the illness. In such cases, people feel the urgency to take pleasure in life’s every unique moment and relish the simple joys while they still can. Very often people do not value things until they are taken away or are threatened to be taken away. The second idea is that death anxiety constantly affects the way people experience their life. In addition, most anxiety comes from issues related to death and decreasing anxiety is one the major goals of psychotherapy. Anxiety can stem from many issues, such as control or fear. Fear of death is one of the significant motivators in our society. We constantly come up with new ways to avoid death by building safer vehicles, wearing protective gear, inventing new medical treatments and procedures. Self preservation is a natural instinct and anxiety related to the end of our life is an unavoidable reality. There are many reasons why individuals are afraid of death: inability to take care of dependents, pain and sadness that loved ones will feel, or fear of the afterlife. But one of the most common reasons is the fear of nothingness and loss of self (Yalom, 1980). Death anxiety can manifest itself in many different ways (Yalom, 1980). One’s feeling of missing exciting events or the desire to control the surrounding world, demonstrate this manifestation. These unhealthy thoughts help individuals ease fear of death by dealing not with the real and terrifying source of anxiety, but indirectly, through more socially acceptable actions. Many people protect themselves from death anxiety by denying it. Yalom (1980) discussed two ways that accomplish this goal: the ultimate rescuer and personal specialness. Both ideas lead people to feel that they will not be affected by misfortune like others might be. The ultimate rescuer is a type of defense mechanism leading people to believe that someone will come into their life and save them from their problems. An example of this would be a person with severe financial problems needing money to take care of health problems believing that someone or something will bring the needed money and the situation will work itself out. Personal specialness involves the belief that one is in a way different from others and therefore immune from the hardships of life. Personal specialness can be seen all around us: a healthy woman thinking cancer will never happen to her, couples believing there is no way they can have an autistic child, or a teenager driving recklessly believing that there is no way he will get in an accident and die. The awareness of finiteness enables people to appreciate the surrounding world at a much deeper level and find what it is they are meant to contribute to the world. The second theme of existential psychotherapy is freedom. Freedom and responsibility go hand in hand. Individuals who are responsible are conscious of the fact that the world is not working against them. They come to realize that their experiences are the outcomes of their own decisions. Some people may feel that their environment, their unconscious mind, or genetic make up is working against them. Existential theory takes into consideration that these sometimes uncontrollable factors have an effect on events, but do not completely determine them. Frankl (2006) wrote regarding his experiences in a concentration camp: Every day, every hour, offered the opportunity to make a decision, a decision which determined whether you would or would not submit to those powers which threatened to rob you of your very self, your inner freedom; which determined whether or not you would become the plaything of circumstances, renouncing freedom and dignity to become molded into the form of the typical inmate (p. 66). In extreme situations as this, freedom represents psychological separation from a difficult situation. In this case, a person has inner freedom to choose how he feels and what he thinks. His physical freedom and material possessions can be taken away, but his thoughts, feelings, his self, cannot. People have the freedom to make any decision they choose, are responsible for these decisions and have to be able to face the outcomes. Yalom (1980) wrote that â€Å"To be aware of responsibility is to be aware of creating one’s own self, destiny, life predicament, feelings, and if such be the case, one’s own suffering† (p. 218). Having the freedom to control one’s own destiny and â€Å"own the insight that you and only you construct your own life design† can be a heavy burden to bear, but once individuals become aware of their power and accept the challenge, they can make significant improvements and live more authentically (Yalom, 1989, p. 38). Simple awareness may not be enough for change to take place. One must be willing and committed to address the negative aspects of life and become responsible for adopting new behaviors. People must accept responsibility for their lives and decisions they have made; otherwise, growth and positive change cannot take place. The third theme of existential therapy is isolation. Yalom (1980) discusses three types of isolation: interpersonal, intrapersonal, and existential. Interpersonal isolation involves separation of self from others. Many factors can contribute to such isolation, such as personality, culture, or physical location. In this case the person does not have a social support network, is not involved in healthy relationships and may feel cut off from other people. Intrapersonal isolation takes place when a person represses certain events, separates part/parts of the psyche or no longer has pronounced personal opinions and beliefs. Yalom (1980) sums up intrapersonal isolation by saying that it â€Å"results whenever one stifles one’s own feelings or desires, accepts â€Å"oughts† or â€Å"shoulds† as one’s own wishes, distrusts one’s own judgment, or buries one’s own potential†. Lastly, existential isolation refers to the feeling of being alone in the world. Regardless of how many friends or family members one has and how closely they are involved together, the person is still isolated and has distinctive experiences of the surrounding world. This may be considered a pessimistic view of life, but it is hard to deny that each person is one of a kind, whose true feeling and experience only they can know. Isolation can be seen as a representation of individuals’ uniqueness. Even though isolation is a part of life, intimate relationships are vital to a fulfilling life. Frankl (2006) wrote â€Å"†¦love is the ultimate and the highest goal to which man can aspire†¦The salvation of man is through love and in love. I understood how a man who has nothing left in this world still may find bliss†¦in the contemplation of his beloved† (p. 37). Genuine and loving relationships, where both individuals are actively involved, provide means to deal with existential isolation and help people find a sense of self. The final theme of existential therapy is meaninglessness. Many people struggle with the idea of what the meaning of their life is. People need a reason to wake up every day, go to work, do their chores, and repeat the cycle over and over again. Lack of goals, hope and purpose, can lead to stress, depression, and even suicide. It is a natural human desire to search for order, patterns, and explanations in the world. This need for organization raises the ultimate question of why and for what one lives. The quest for the meaning of life is divided into two groups of thought: man creates meaning and man is in search of meaning. The first idea is non spiritual and is based on the fact that there is no prearranged meaning and people create their own reason to live. The second way of thought regarding meaning of life is spiritual. It states that meaning is predetermined by a higher power and is something that a person needs to find. Frankl (2006) wrote â€Å"Everyone has his own specific vocation or mission in life to carry out a concrete assignment which demands fulfillment. Therein he cannot be replaced, nor can his life be repeated. Thus, everyone’s task is as unique as his specific opportunity to implement it† (p. 109). Regardless of the origin of meaning, it helps people truly live and keep going. As discussed earlier, the themes of death, freedom, isolation and meaninglessness are used to build self-awareness in clients. Following the point when the client is committed to modify behavior, Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) concepts and techniques are incorporated to make lasting changes in the client’s life. REBT therapists’ goal is to â€Å"help clients to give up their demands for perfection and to strive to develop constructive self-acceptance as well as acceptance of others† (Walen, DiGiuseppe, Dryden, 1992, p. 14) by overcoming their irrational beliefs. Irrational beliefs are unreasonable, do not represent actual events, commonly involve â€Å"black and white† thinking, lead to anxiety and prevent people from achieving their goals (Walen et al. ,1992). Within an existential theme of death, a client who has severe death anxiety and constantly avoids participating in various activities in order to avoid potential dangers, would first be guided to examine the reasons for death anxiety, and the irrational belief of death threat would be challenged by the therapist. There are six principles of REBT (Walen et al. , 1992). The core idea of the theory is that â€Å"we feel what we think† (Walen et al., 1992, p. 15). External factors do not cause people to feel a certain way, but rather people’s internal perceptions and interpretations contribute to the destructive emotional and behavioral reactions. The next principle is that irrational thinking causes the majority of emotional distress. Irrational thought patterns such as â€Å"musts†, â€Å"shoulds† and exaggerations can create extreme anxiety in individuals and make them feel out of control. The third principle states that by changing thinking patterns, the person can overcome anxiety causing feelings. Another principle discusses various factors that affect ways of thinking. According to Sharf (2008), Albert Ellis took into account biological and social factors that affect human development and susceptibility to develop irrational beliefs. Ellis believed that people have inborn drives to think irrationally and react to the environment in certain way. People are also strongly affected by their interpersonal relationships. Ellis found that if others perceive the person as worthy, the person is more likely to perceive himself as worthy, too. Our society as a whole contributes to this way of thinking by telling us that we â€Å"must† and â€Å"have to† do things a certain way. For example, parents telling kids to eat everything on their plate. This promotes the belief in children that if they do not finish a meal, they have failed. In adulthood, this can lead to obesity and other health problems, as well as irrational patterns of thought related to food. The fifth principle encourages clients to focus on the present. People may become â€Å"stuck† in the past and previously used thinking and coping patterns. By doing so, they are not able to leave behind destructive habits and move towards healthier ways of dealing with issues. Finally, REBT has an optimistic view and promotes that people can change. With hard work and determination, irrational and self-defeating thoughts can be reduced and lead to a more satisfying life. REBT uses a three part model to help clients overcome their issues: ‘A’ as activating event or adversities, ‘B’ as belief and ‘C’ as consequences. ‘A’ is the perceived unfortunate event in the person’s life which spurs self-defeating reactions. ‘B’ primarily includes believing, thinking, and also emoting and behaving in relation to ‘A’. C is characterized as the destructive consequences of ‘B’. According to Ellis (2002), many clients find it difficult to understand the ABC model as they wrongfully believe that ‘A’ directly causes ‘C’. It is important for clients to understand that their beliefs contribute significantly to the emotionally destructive consequences. It is important for individuals to focus on the adverse event and experience the entire range of emotions that occur as a result. Clients are encouraged to focus on specific thoughts that caused negative emotions, such as perceived ‘musts’ and ‘shoulds’. Then, they are instructed to replace damaging thoughts with healthier ones and work to pinpoint which thoughts contribute to positive versus negative emotions. This technique allows the client to better control their thoughts, leading to more functional emotions and behaviors. It is important to help clients understand that thinking, emoting and behaving frequently happens simultaneously rather than individually. If a client is upset with a loved one, he might be feeling hurt, thinking that he is being ignored, and behaving angrily by raising his voice all at the same time (Ellis, 2002). Clients are encouraged to honestly and openly experience feelings, accept their existence and how they influence clients’ lives (Ellis, 1997). Sharf (2008) discusses Ellis’ belief in the importance of concentrating on the long-term goals, which he calls responsible hedonism. REBT believes that enjoyment is a significant part of life, but that many individuals focus on short-term pleasure, such as substance abuse, rather than concentrating on the long-term enjoyment of living a healthy life. Humanism is another core concept of REBT. Each person is viewed as a whole and goal-oriented being. Clients are encouraged to have Unconditional Self Acceptance, which includes assets and flaws. They are taught to value themselves because they are alive, regardless of the mistakes they have made, their socioeconomic status, intellectual abilities or the type of feelings they experience. Existentialism and REBT concepts have several common characteristics, which can make the use of these two therapies together more effective than individual use. This integrated approach provides an â€Å"existential framework that balances the appeal to reason with the unique human tendency to discover individual meaning† (Hutchinson Chapman, 2005, p. 146). According to Ellis (2002), there are seven main ways in which existential therapy and REBT practices are similar and therefore complement each other in achieving change in clients. First of all, both theories accept the fact that anxiety is a normal part of life. Moderate existential anxiety is what keeps people alive. The problem occurs when humans become overly concerned with certain life events and become neurotic. Second, existential theory believes that people are able to rise above potential and existing unfortunate situations. REBT also believes that people can choose to think about difficult events in such ways that do not cause distress. The third similarity is that both theories agree that it is vital to â€Å"directly and firmly show†¦clients the error in their ways† (Ellis, 2002, p. 253). Clients need to be taught skills in order to make changes to destructive thoughts and behaviors. Clients are ‘free’ to change, but might be unable to do so without concrete techniques. Another similarity is that both theories incorporate the idea that individuals have the freedom and power to be in control of their destiny. Ellis (1997) wrote: â€Å"[choice]†¦is one of the main advantages of being human: you can choose, usually, to think one thing or another† (p. 38). People have the ability to decide and control how they think, and consequently how they feel or behave in various, sometimes extremely difficult situations. They can choose to feel depressed, helpless and hopeless or take charge of a situation and focus on what they can control. The goal of purposeful living contributing to a more meaningful and fulfilling life can be seen in existential therapy and REBT. A meaningful life helps individuals become more self-actualized and increase personal awareness. With increased awareness and meaning, people can better control self-defeating thoughts and overcome existential conflicts. The next idea that existential therapy and REBT share is that there is no absolute truth. Each person’s experiences are subjective and unique occurrences. Every individual knows what is true for him only and it is difficult for people to come to an agreement regarding what is true (Kaufmann, 1975). Additionally, both theories focus on the present. It is important to work on problematic behaviors that are happening today. Past and future affect the person, but do not determine the reality. REBT techniques of staying calm and rational can help clients work logically on the issues of meaninglessness, isolation a nd death. The final similarity relates to the therapist client relationship. Existential and REBT therapists aim to be fully present with the client. They strive to empathize, relate and experience the world through the client’s eyes. Psychological health is subjective and depends on the person’s life style, culture and many other factors. However, there are a number of characteristics that can be used to define psychological health. In regard to existential theory, Sharf (2008) considers that â€Å"to be truly human, individuals must be aware of their own being-in-the-world†, which involves realization of one’s personal value, destiny, and responsibility (p. 151). Considering existential theory and REBT, a psychologically healthy person lives rationally, authentically, purposefully and accepts the uncontrollable life events. Authenticity is one of the main characteristics of a psychologically healthy person. Authenticity includes meaningful existence which allows individuals to feel alive, genuine, aware and fully present in the moment. Healthy individuals are honest with themselves and are able to accept their freedom to make positive choices, accept the outcomes of their decisions, and successfully cope with unanswered questions of their existence. Genuine and meaningful relationships with others are a significant part of the person’s life and one is able to maintain a healthy relationship without losing a sense of self. Avoidance of feelings that one ‘has to’ or ‘must’ do certain things is also vital. Psychologically healthy individuals do not overreact, overgeneralize and otherwise examine situations logically and rationally. These individuals are tolerant of difficult or undesirable situations, exhibit low frustration levels, focus on long-term goals, live purposeful and meaningful lives. The increased state of psychological health can take a long time and requires commitment and patience from the therapist and the client. According to Yalom (1989), the first step to increased psychological health is assumption of responsibility. In order for the client to change behavior patters, he must first accept that his current position is due to his own actions. For the client to change, therapist and client must find specific issues and tensions that play into the client’s life. A significant part of the therapeutic process is to facilitate the client to accept the contradictions and challenges of human existence. Therapist assists the client to set goals and find purpose in life, while accepting and rationally dealing with the obstacles that the client might have to face in the process. The main goal is to empower the client to realize his full potential, accept personal freedom, and be more aware of thinking, emoting, and behaving patterns. Clients increase personal awareness and start living authentically, with an ability to communicate effectively with others and understand the true self. In addition, clients explore what is important to them and how they can achieve what they want in life. In the process of working through life’s everyday challenges and experiences, clients explore deeper issues having to do with humanity in general, such as death, isolation, and meaning. Clients learn to better control self-defeating emotions, thoughts and behaviors. They start thinking more lucidly and rationally, which gives them the ability to experience life to the fullest. There are a number of methods and techniques to help clients improve psychological health, authenticity, and life satisfaction. Existential therapy and REBT agree that each person has a unique perception of reality. In existential therapy, an important strategy is to accept the world through the client’s eyes and allow the client to guide the course of therapy. Once the path of questioning is determined, the therapist uses Socratic dialog to help the client come to his own conclusions and decisions. This technique is a component of both existential therapy and REBT. It involves questions that help the client come to an understanding of a problem or situation or make a decision. Socratic dialog is used â€Å"to prompt the discovery of life purpose and meaning at a spiritual level†¦[as well as] challenge the inflexible shoulds and musts, absolutistic demands, self-downing, and catastrophic beliefs† (Hutchinson Chapman, 2005, p. 151). Such ways of questioning also contribute to a ‘buy-in’ from the client and improves self-discovery information retention (Walen et al. , 1992). Existential therapy and REBT take into consideration the past and future, but therapeutic change takes place in the present. By focusing on the present, the client is helped to continually self-actualize, experience his personal existence, and work through the issues preventing authentic existence. The main goal of REBT is to dispute the client’s irrational beliefs. The ABC model discussed earlier is the tool used to change the client’s dysfunctional thinking, but in the actual therapeutic process two more elements are added: ‘D’ as Disputation and ‘E’ as new effect. Once the activating event is clearly outlined, the therapist points out to the client his irrational beliefs which led to the undesirable consequence. Disputing involves detecting, discriminating and debating irrational beliefs. The therapist outlines and questions the client’s irrational beliefs, helping the client understand the destructive thinking patterns. Now the client is ready to adopt a more functional way of thinking, by replacing irrational beliefs with appropriate thoughts, therefore reducing unpleasant feelings about self and others and start living a more fulfilling life. Existential discussions can help clients discover personal freedom to change their state of existence and find more pleasure in life. Such self-awareness can make the disputing process easier by providing the client with the power and freedom to overcome self-defeating thoughts (Hutchinson Chapman, 1992). A genuine therapeutic relationship is a vital factor in existential therapy. The therapist strives to be authentically caring and validate the client’s feelings, thoughts and experiences. The client must feel comfortable expressing himself and allowing the therapist into his innermost thoughts and feelings. In order for this to happen, the therapist must communicate to the client that the client and his feeling and thoughts are fully accepted. A strong relationship also makes the client more likely to follow the therapist’s advice and trust the REBT disputing process. Although existential therapy and REBT are complementary in many ways, the integration has a number of limitations. The process counts on the client to be fairly insightful and self aware. Someone, whose intellectual abilities are not as strong, may not benefit as much from therapy. Past experiences of the client are taken into consideration, but are not actively explored. This may limit the insight achieved by the therapist and client, therefore slowing down improvement. Additionally, this integrated approach is more targeted towards individual therapy, so family systems techniques would need to be incorporated in order to accommodate families and couples. Existential therapy and REBT have many common objectives and share a number of underlying concepts. Although this integrated approach to counseling is somewhat directive, the client’s concerns and personal goals are in the center of the therapeutic process. Therapy is based on leading the client to self-discovery, authentic and rational existence. By combining themes and techniques of existential theory and REBT, clients gain the benefit of examining multifaceted existential themes with the addition of empirically supported REBT techniques. My interest in the integration of existential therapy and REBT originally came from personal beliefs and experiences. Congruent with existential theory, I have often questioned the purpose of my life and whether human beings are interconnected or isolated. I relate to the spiritually oriented existentialism and have always believed that every person has a certain calling; the difficulty only lies in finding what it is. Consistent with the ideas of REBT, I many times find myself and people around me overreacting, overgeneralizing, and otherwise making inappropriate statements and having irrational thoughts. By becoming more aware of my own existence, thoughts, beliefs and actions, I will be able to help my clients come to similar understandings and lead more fulfilling, purposeful, and authentic lives. My philosophical inclination, my strive to understand other people’s points of view and my focus on the present will provide a healthy and successful environment for clients to achieve their therapeutic goals. References Ellis, A. , Harper, R. (1997). A Guide to Rational Living. Chatsworth: Melvin Powers Wilshire Book Company. Ellis, A. (2002). Overcoming Resistance: A Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy Integrated Apporach. New York: Springer Publishing Company Inc. Frankl, V. (2006). Man’s Search For Meaning. Boston: Beacon Press. Hutchinson, G. T. Chapman, B. P. Logotherapy-Enhanced REBT: An Integration of Discovery and Reason. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, Vol. 35, No. 2, 145-155 Kierkegaard: Dread and Freedom. In Kaufmann, Walter (Eds) (1975). Existentialism from Dostoevsky to Sarte (pp83-120). New York: The New American Library Inc. Kierkegaard: Authority. In Kaufmann, Walter (Eds) (1975). Existentialism from Dostoevsky to Sarte (pp83-120). New York: The New American Library Inc. Kierkegaard: Truth is Subjectivity. In Kaufmann, Walter (Eds) (1975). Existentialism from Dostoevsky to Sarte (pp83-120). New York: The New American Library Inc. Nietzsche: The Portable Neitzche. In Kaufmann, Walter (Eds) (1975). Existentialism from Dostoevsky to Sarte (pp121-133). New York: The New American Library Inc. Sharf, R. S. (2008). Theories of Psychotherapy and Counseling: Concepts and Cases. Belmont: University of Delaware, Thomson Brooks/Cole. Walen, S. , DiGiuseppe, R. , Dryden, W. (1992). A Practitioner’s Guide to Rational- Emotive Therapy. New York: Oxford University Press. Yalom, I. (1980). Existential Psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books. Yalom, I. (1989). Love’s Executioner: Other Tails of Psychotherapy. New York: Basic Books.

Changes During the Ageing Process

Changes During the Ageing Process Physiological and sociological ageing is an unpreventable process to which, each individual goes through. Although each ageing process varies greatly from each individual to another it tends to speed up as we age. â€Å"Ageing can be defined as increasing the number and proportion of elderly in society† (Calasanti Kathleen, 2006) We age from the moment we are born, however the changes that occurs during ageing results from losses that is gradual overtime. It is said that loses can often start from young adulthood (mid 20’s-30’s) because our bodies being able to adjust and maintain health in most individuals, it is said the loss in not shown until later on in life. â€Å"We lose 1% of organ functionality per year from the age of 30 years old† (Martin GM, 2007) â€Å"the majority of these changes are not seen until after age 70† (Critchley, 1931, 1934) The considerable difference in the rate of ageing and organ efficiency lies within the presence of disease and/or the ability of the body to adapt to external stress. The three main models of changes that we need to focus on during our ageing process are; physical, psychological and social. At any given time, one can be effected or all of them together which can impact on a person’s quality of life. As we’re all unique in our own right, each person’s ageing process can be different ageing cycle. â€Å"The pensioner population is expected to rise despite the increase in the women’s state pension age to 65 between 2010 and 2020 and the increase for both men and women from 65 to 68 between 2024 and 2046.† (Parliament, 2010) According to the NHS, individuals are living longer than ever before and our society is expanding. With the NHS explaining that â€Å"with the fastest rise in the ‘oldest old’, means that the overall number of people in our society withhealth or care needs has risen. In turn, this has altered the very nature of our health and care services, with older people now the biggest users† As we get older, it is common for some memory loss such as forgetting names or appointments, this is normal due to â€Å"memory being affected by age, stress, tiredness, or certain illnesses and medications† (NHS, 2014) Typically common illnesses and diseases occurs (however not exclusive to elderly individuals) is Dementia, Cancer and also Arthritis. Dementia is a progressive disease. Affecting all parts of the brain such as the frontal lobe, occipital lobes, temporal lobe, and parietal lobe. â€Å"Dementia is a syndrome (a group of related symptoms) associated with an ongoing decline of the brain and its abilities. This includes problems with: memory loss, thinking speed, mental agility, language, understanding, judgement† (NHS, 2014) According to the Alzheimer’s Society there are â€Å"around 800,000 people in the UK with dementia. Current statistics show that one in three people over 65 will develop dementia, and two thirds of people with dementia are women†. Research undertaken by Alzheimer’s Society has shown that young people also develop dementia and it is not exclusive to elderly people. According to Cancer Research, 2013 â€Å"Cancer is a disease caused by normal cells changing so that they grow in an uncontrolled way. The uncontrolled growth causes a lump called a tumour to form†. Age Concern UK, conducted a study in the years between 2009-2011 and found that the most top 5 cancer diagnosed for men aged 75 and over is prostate, lung, bowel, bladder and stomach cancer. Their research also found that the top 5 commonly cancer being diagnosed for women over 75 and over; breast, bowel, lung, pancreas and Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma cancer. Also shown during this research was that â€Å"36% of all cancers are diagnosed in the elderly† (UK, 2009-2011) Arthritis is not exclusive to elderly people and it is a myth to say that â€Å"only elderly people have arthritis† it also affects younger individuals also. â€Å"Arthritis is a common condition that causes pain and inflammation within a joint. In the UK, around 10 million people have arthritis. Two of the most commonare osteoarthritisand rheumatoid arthritis.† (NHS, 2012) According to Arthritis Research UK, 2013: â€Å"Osteoarthritis is a common form of arthritis statistic shows that 8.5 million people are affected by Osteoarthritis.† â€Å"In people affected by osteoarthritis, the cartilage (connective tissue) between their bones gradually wastes away, leading to painful rubbing of bone on bone in the joints. The most frequently affected joints are in the hands, spine, knees and hips. Osteoarthritis often develops in people who are over 50 years of age. However, it can develop at any age as a result of an injury or another joint-related condition† (NHS, 2012) â€Å"The psychological aspect of ageing is a phase of personal integrity with despair† (Erik Erikson, 1950) during the final stages of the cycle of life; the individual is often seeking a sense of integrity and trying to avoid a sense of despair. Elder age often becomes a time of reflecting back on their life which allows a return of events during their own personal lifetime. â€Å"To the extent we have succeeded in effectively solving the problems that had arisen at every stage of life, we have developed a sense of completion and fullness that is to say, the feeling of full life† (Gullette, 2004). Societies views on ageing has been deemed as somewhat negative, it has been argued that the older population can be wrongly so, be a drain on society. Due to advantages in modern medicine and technology it has been clearly proven that there is a better quality of life for older people. The government has also contributed in helping improve quality of life to over 65’s by providing; state pension, free TV licence, free bus pass, winter fuel allowance, help with care nursing fee’s* (if individual doesn’t have any form of assets such as property*) and legislations in place for best interests of individuals and pushing them to remain independent where possible by staying in their own home rather than carting off elderly people into nursing homes or care homes once they reach retirement age. Elderly individuals do also contribute back to society such as volunteering, childcare for grandchildren and also, most continue to work and pay their taxes after the â€Å"state pension age† of 61 and 68 years old. Ageing is different from one individual to another because all human beings are unique in their own right, it’s hard to pinpoint how the ageing process affects each individual physical, intellectual abilities and psychological quality of life however, individuals needs change as they age and in order to meet a standard of quality of life their needs should be simultaneously met where possible. During life, we all often begin to experiences many types of losses this can include loss of many things such as material things; health, jobs, homes. Death of relatives, friends and pets. At times, this can come all at once or spaced out nevertheless; losing an object or an individual close to you can be overwhelming sadness period in anyone’s life which can result in problems physically and mentally such as depression. Dr Elisabeth Kà ¼bler-Ross’s pioneering research on grief and grieving has made a significant indent on the bereavement and support care of those individuals that are grieving. In fact such an idea or understanding of grief was a rare and novel idea before Dr Elisabeth Kà ¼bler-Ross 1969 research which inaugurated her â€Å"five stages of grief† which is detailed as; first stage, shock and denial and sometimes overwhelming, the second stage is anger. Dr Kà ¼bler-Ross explains that the realisation of reality emerges after the initial shock. The feelings of anger may be directed at the loved one whom passed over or people around the person who is grieving. Following from that the third stage of grief is said to be bargaining, the person who is grieving can be thinking the classic â€Å"should of, could of, would of† †¦ I wish I would have done this, I wish I would have done that. I wish I would have told them this, seen them more before passing etc. forth s tage of the process is said to be depression, a mixture feelings of sadness and mourning and the final stage of the process is acceptance; this phase is a mixture of accepting what has happened, knowing that you cannot change the past. Allowing themselves to continue living after a loved one has passed without feeling guilty about â€Å"moving on†. Although the five stages of grief model was initially developed to help health care professionals around the world understand the grief of their patients and their relatives who are on the verge of passing over, it has now been comprehensively adopted by individuals around the world not just medical professions but individuals who are facing to be in a situation of their loved ones passing over. The stages are arguably an experience during which, the sorrowful process of the experience of grief are somewhat, easier to understand the grieving process. The idea also provided an in-depth understanding of grief and for helping others cope through personal trauma of grief. Going through grief is understandably, one of the hardest things an individual can ever go through, but realising that they don’t have to do it all by their selves can help â€Å"ease† the pain from grieving. These days there is lot of support groups available for people who are grieving. The support groups can benefit others by sharing their loss and pain by openly talking about their circumstances and feelings is an active step for them to work through their pain and come to term with that has happened to them. Another positive is that by sharing the loss and pain with others going through the same thing, eventually the individuals find themselves giving compassion and reaching out to help others within the support group with the hope they will survive through the terrible personal trauma of grief. Although many theories has been developed regarding the ageing process, the theory of disengagement has generated the most interest to this day (Cumming Henry, 1961) according to their theory; â€Å"as people age, they tend to withdraw from society, and this can be mutual, with society†. Cumming Henry had argued â€Å"this was a consequence of people learning within their limitations with age and making way for new generations of people the fill their roles†. However, it is said that the disengagement theory is controversial, and many individuals do not agree with it. One negativity of disengagement is the low self-esteem that can occur of disengaging. This could have a knock on effect of simply â€Å"not engaging† with others if they believe they are not â€Å"worth it†. â€Å"This qualitative change will accompany the quantitative reduction in social interaction taking place between the elderly and society† (Masoro, 2006). Within diverse societies, it is argued that the disengagement theory is a negative one. When the disengagement theory was created by Cumming Henry, the tradition within society back then was allowing older people to live at home with their families rather than using any form of nursing and residential care. The activity theory was originally developed by Robert J. Havighurst in 1961; originally the activity theory was conceived as a response to then, the recently published disengagement theory of ageing. As mentioned above, the disengagement model suggested that it is natural for elderly to disengage completely from society when they realise that they are close to their death. According to activity theorists, as people interact with their environment and each other, they achieve a series of outcomes. As individuals engage within activities, it gives them something to focus on and keeps themselves as well as their brains active which can minimise depression and feelings of being unwanted. The activity theory has been to understand the emotional changes within ageing adults. Research has found that elderly individuals that has remained in employment, or being able to peruse hobbies or day centres etc. can actually improve a quality of life as it keeps themselves busy and actively engaging with others can improve their self-esteem dramatically. As we’re all unique in our own right, it’s hard to define ageing process for every single human being. But on average, whilst most over 60’s might still be in employment, having independence and remaining in their own home and others might be unable to mobilize and lost their independence and residing in a care home. Following from research of this essay, as long as all elder individuals needs and preferences are met, their quality of life is at a high standard and appropriate help and support is available then processing through the later adult ageing process will be significantly easier for the individual going through the ageing process and dealing with complications that can occur such as higher risk of developing illnesses that can occur as we age.